The Forum
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Forum Overview
According to tradition, the Forum’s beginnings are connected with the alliance between the legendary figures of Romulus, the first king of Rome who controlled the tribe of the Latins on the Palatine Hill, and his rival, Titus Tatius, who controlled the tribes of the Quirinal and Esquiline, on the Capitoline Hill. An alliance formed between the two leaders after combat had been halted by the prayers and cries of the Sabine women. Because the valley lay between the two hilltop settlements, it was the designated place for the two groups to meet. It was at the Shrine of Vulcan, an open-air altar on the slopes of the Capitoline Hill, where the two leaders laid down their weapons and formed an alliance. This merger of the hills is said to be the foundation of the Roman State. Wikipedia (Side-note: Vulcan was the Roman god of fire.)
Originally, the valley was submerged in marshland and could only be used for burials. In approximately 600 BCE, under the direction of Tarquinius Priscus, one of the earliest Kings of Rome, a canal called Cloaca Maxima, was built to drain the area and to be used as a sewage system. This allowed the area to be gradually developed into an area of busy markets and meeting places.
The Forum became the centre of Roman public life. It was the scene of the greatest events of history such as: triumphal processions, elections, public speeches, criminal trials, gladiatorial matches; festivals, executions and funerals. It became the nucleus of commercial affairs. Statues and monuments commemorated the gods and the city’s great men. It was during Caesar’s reign that the Forum became the symbol of the Empire. There are many forums in Rome, but the inclusion of the Senate House in the Roman Forum made this Forum the most important monument of Rome. What to See in Rome, J. Paglia, 1938.
Many people whose names with which we are familiar, lived in, worked in, or visited the Forum over the years such as: Hadrian, Septimius Severus, Constantine, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Pompey, Octavius, Brutus (the stabbing nephew) and even the Egyptian Queen, Cleopatra.
The Roman kingdom’s earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the ancient royal residence, the Regia (8th century BCE), and the Temple of Vesta (7th century BCE), as well as the surrounding complex of the Vestal Virgins, all of which were rebuilt after the rise of Imperial Rome.
Other archaic shrines to the northwest, such as the Umbilicus Urbis and the Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), developed into the Republic’s formal Comitium(assembly area; open-air public meeting space). This is where the Senate, as well as Republican government itself, began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually filled the area.
Over time the archaic Comitium was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum and the focus of judicial activity moved to the new Basilica Aemilia (179 BCE). From where you are standing behind the Senatorio building, look through the open space between the Arch of Titus and the Temple of Saturn, you will see the few remains of Basilica Aemilia.
Some 130 years later, Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia, which is to your right as you view from the hill behind the Senatorio building. Basilica Julia housed both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, judicial and religious pursuits in ever-greater numbers. Another side note: Caesar’s daughter Julia, was married to Pompey because Caesar married her off to him. Many men in power forced their daughters or sisters to be married to men for political gain; even if their daughter or sister was already happily married. Julia ended up dying in childbirth and Pompey was beheaded on the orders of the Egyptian King Ptolemy in Alexandria, Egypt as he arrived at the beach. I am suspecting that Caesar, back home in Rome, was feeling a little poorly about the whole thing and built the temple to his daughter.
Eventually economic and judicial business would transfer away from the Forum to the larger and more extravagant structures of Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s market and the Basilica Ulpia; your next stop on the tour, across the road, to the north.
The reign of Constantine the Great, saw the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complex—the Basilica of Maxentius, in 312 CE, which you will pass on your way to the Colosseum.
The Roman Empire eventually fell and the Forum was abandoned. The monuments were torn apart so the marble could be reused in the construction of newer buildings, including the walls of the Vatican.
Archaeologist Carlo Fea, rediscovered the Forum in 1803 and one hundred years of excavation began. Excerpts from Wikipedia.com
According to tradition, the Forum’s beginnings are connected with the alliance between the legendary figures of Romulus, the first king of Rome who controlled the tribe of the Latins on the Palatine Hill, and his rival, Titus Tatius, who controlled the tribes of the Quirinal and Esquiline, on the Capitoline Hill. An alliance formed between the two leaders after combat had been halted by the prayers and cries of the Sabine women. Because the valley lay between the two hilltop settlements, it was the designated place for the two groups to meet. It was at the Shrine of Vulcan, an open-air altar on the slopes of the Capitoline Hill, where the two leaders laid down their weapons and formed an alliance. This merger of the hills is said to be the foundation of the Roman State. Wikipedia (Side-note: Vulcan was the Roman god of fire.)
Originally, the valley was submerged in marshland and could only be used for burials. In approximately 600 BCE, under the direction of Tarquinius Priscus, one of the earliest Kings of Rome, a canal called Cloaca Maxima, was built to drain the area and to be used as a sewage system. This allowed the area to be gradually developed into an area of busy markets and meeting places.
The Forum became the centre of Roman public life. It was the scene of the greatest events of history such as: triumphal processions, elections, public speeches, criminal trials, gladiatorial matches; festivals, executions and funerals. It became the nucleus of commercial affairs. Statues and monuments commemorated the gods and the city’s great men. It was during Caesar’s reign that the Forum became the symbol of the Empire. There are many forums in Rome, but the inclusion of the Senate House in the Roman Forum made this Forum the most important monument of Rome. What to See in Rome, J. Paglia, 1938.
Many people whose names with which we are familiar, lived in, worked in, or visited the Forum over the years such as: Hadrian, Septimius Severus, Constantine, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Pompey, Octavius, Brutus (the stabbing nephew) and even the Egyptian Queen, Cleopatra.
The Roman kingdom’s earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the ancient royal residence, the Regia (8th century BCE), and the Temple of Vesta (7th century BCE), as well as the surrounding complex of the Vestal Virgins, all of which were rebuilt after the rise of Imperial Rome.
Other archaic shrines to the northwest, such as the Umbilicus Urbis and the Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), developed into the Republic’s formal Comitium(assembly area; open-air public meeting space). This is where the Senate, as well as Republican government itself, began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually filled the area.
Over time the archaic Comitium was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum and the focus of judicial activity moved to the new Basilica Aemilia (179 BCE). From where you are standing behind the Senatorio building, look through the open space between the Arch of Titus and the Temple of Saturn, you will see the few remains of Basilica Aemilia.
Some 130 years later, Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia, which is to your right as you view from the hill behind the Senatorio building. Basilica Julia housed both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, judicial and religious pursuits in ever-greater numbers. Another side note: Caesar’s daughter Julia, was married to Pompey because Caesar married her off to him. Many men in power forced their daughters or sisters to be married to men for political gain; even if their daughter or sister was already happily married. Julia ended up dying in childbirth and Pompey was beheaded on the orders of the Egyptian King Ptolemy in Alexandria, Egypt as he arrived at the beach. I am suspecting that Caesar, back home in Rome, was feeling a little poorly about the whole thing and built the temple to his daughter.
Eventually economic and judicial business would transfer away from the Forum to the larger and more extravagant structures of Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s market and the Basilica Ulpia; your next stop on the tour, across the road, to the north.
The reign of Constantine the Great, saw the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complex—the Basilica of Maxentius, in 312 CE, which you will pass on your way to the Colosseum.
The Roman Empire eventually fell and the Forum was abandoned. The monuments were torn apart so the marble could be reused in the construction of newer buildings, including the walls of the Vatican.
Archaeologist Carlo Fea, rediscovered the Forum in 1803 and one hundred years of excavation began. Excerpts from Wikipedia.com
The Temple of Saturn is the most ancient in the Forum, dating from the beginning of the Republic in 497 BC. It is a temple to the pagan god Saturn. Saturn was a busy fellow and was the god of: generation, dissolution, plenty, wealth, agriculture, renewal, time and liberation. The temple of Saturn, here in the Forum has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. The present remains date from a reconstruction of the Emperor Septimius Severus.
The treasury of the state (all the cash and gold) was preserved in this temple. It was here that Metellus, the custodian of the treasury, made a vain attempt to prevent Julius Caesar from seizing the treasure when the great dictator (Caesar) appropriated it to himself, and distributed a large part of it among the citizens in order to win their favour.
On the occasion of triumphs of victorious generals, it was at the feet of this temple that the chariot of the conqueror turned to the left to go by Clivus capitolinus (the main road to the Roman Capital), to thank the gods. At the same time, the prisoners of war followed the procession, loaded with chains, and were lead to the Mamertime Prison to be strangled.
(What to See in Rome, Paglia, 1938)
In Roman mythology, Saturn was an agricultural deity who was said to have reigned over the world in the Golden Age, when humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in a state of social egalitarianism. Saturn’s wife Opis, was also honoured at this site as she was the goddess of abundant crops.
According to ancient sources, the statue of the god in the interior, was veiled and equipped with a scythe. The image was made of wood and filled with oil. The legs were covered with bands of wool which were removed only on December 17, the day of the Saturnalia.
Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in honour of the god Saturn, held on the 17th of December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through to the 23rd of December. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn and a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival atmosphere that overturned Roman social norms: gambling was permitted, and masters provided table service for their slaves. Saturnalia was a festival of light leading to the winter solstice, with the abundant presence of candles symbolizing the quest for knowledge and truth. The renewal of light and the coming of the new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire during the Dies Natalis of Sol Invictus, the Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun, on December 25. The popularity of Saturnalia continued into the third and fourth centuries CE, and as the Roman Empire came under Christian rule, this annual pagan celebration may have influenced the date surrounding Christmas and the New Year.
Wikipedia
Terms:
Deity: In religious belief, a supernatural being, who may be thought of as holy, divine or sacred.
Golden Age: Greek legend - A period of peace, harmony, stability and prosperity where Earth provided food in abundance and people lived to be very old with a youthful appearance without the use of miracle face-cream! When people eventually died, it was peacefully with spirits living on as guardians. There were five ages: Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic and Iron. Each Age was worse than the one before. In Hesiod’s version, the Golden Age ended when the Titan Prometheus gave to humankind the gift of fire and all the other arts. For this, Zeus punished Prometheus by chaining him to a rock where an eagle eternally ate at his liver. The gods sent the beautiful maiden, Pandora, to Epimetheus, who was Prometheus’s brother. The gods had entrusted Pandora with a box that she was forbidden to open; however, her uncontrollable curiosity got the better of her and she opened the box, thereby unleashing all manner of evil into the world. Wikipedia
Scythe: Agricultural hand tool for mowing grass or reaping crops.
The treasury of the state (all the cash and gold) was preserved in this temple. It was here that Metellus, the custodian of the treasury, made a vain attempt to prevent Julius Caesar from seizing the treasure when the great dictator (Caesar) appropriated it to himself, and distributed a large part of it among the citizens in order to win their favour.
On the occasion of triumphs of victorious generals, it was at the feet of this temple that the chariot of the conqueror turned to the left to go by Clivus capitolinus (the main road to the Roman Capital), to thank the gods. At the same time, the prisoners of war followed the procession, loaded with chains, and were lead to the Mamertime Prison to be strangled.
(What to See in Rome, Paglia, 1938)
In Roman mythology, Saturn was an agricultural deity who was said to have reigned over the world in the Golden Age, when humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in a state of social egalitarianism. Saturn’s wife Opis, was also honoured at this site as she was the goddess of abundant crops.
According to ancient sources, the statue of the god in the interior, was veiled and equipped with a scythe. The image was made of wood and filled with oil. The legs were covered with bands of wool which were removed only on December 17, the day of the Saturnalia.
Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in honour of the god Saturn, held on the 17th of December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through to the 23rd of December. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn and a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival atmosphere that overturned Roman social norms: gambling was permitted, and masters provided table service for their slaves. Saturnalia was a festival of light leading to the winter solstice, with the abundant presence of candles symbolizing the quest for knowledge and truth. The renewal of light and the coming of the new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire during the Dies Natalis of Sol Invictus, the Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun, on December 25. The popularity of Saturnalia continued into the third and fourth centuries CE, and as the Roman Empire came under Christian rule, this annual pagan celebration may have influenced the date surrounding Christmas and the New Year.
Wikipedia
Terms:
Deity: In religious belief, a supernatural being, who may be thought of as holy, divine or sacred.
Golden Age: Greek legend - A period of peace, harmony, stability and prosperity where Earth provided food in abundance and people lived to be very old with a youthful appearance without the use of miracle face-cream! When people eventually died, it was peacefully with spirits living on as guardians. There were five ages: Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic and Iron. Each Age was worse than the one before. In Hesiod’s version, the Golden Age ended when the Titan Prometheus gave to humankind the gift of fire and all the other arts. For this, Zeus punished Prometheus by chaining him to a rock where an eagle eternally ate at his liver. The gods sent the beautiful maiden, Pandora, to Epimetheus, who was Prometheus’s brother. The gods had entrusted Pandora with a box that she was forbidden to open; however, her uncontrollable curiosity got the better of her and she opened the box, thereby unleashing all manner of evil into the world. Wikipedia
Scythe: Agricultural hand tool for mowing grass or reaping crops.
At the far end of the Forum, toward the Colosseum, is the Arch of Titus. It was built circa 82 CE by the Emperor Domitian shortly after the death of his older brother Titus. It was built to commemorate Titus’ victories, including the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE during which the Romans destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem.
The surrendering of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem was officially marked by the Romans with the building of two triumphal arches of which the Arch of Titus is the only remaining arch. This arch displays one of the most important triumphal processions mentioned in history.
In the frieze of the arch, under the inscription, is represented the first part of the procession where various animals are being lead to sacrifice. At the end of the procession soldiers are carrying a reclining figure of the River Jordon, symbolizing the country conquered by the Romans. Inside the arch, on the left, the spoils of war are carried in procession by Roman soldiers, who are about to pass under the Arch of Fabius, the seven branch candlestick, the Golden table of Shewbread, (Bread of the Presence) the famous silver trumpets and other spoils from the temple. These spoils were likely originally coloured gold with the background done in blue. In 2012, the Arch of Titus Digital Restoration Project discovered remains of yellow ochre paint on the menorah relief. The menorah depicted on the Arch served as the model for the menorah used on the emblem of the state of Israel.
Opposite, the Emperor is displayed in a triumphal chariot on his way to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capital; the goddess of Rome is leading the chariot.
The ceiling of the archway is deeply coffered and includes a relief depicting the apotheosis of Titus at the center. The sculptural program also includes two panel reliefs on the interior of the passageway within the arch. Both commemorate the triumph celebrated by Titus and his father Vespasian in the summer of 71 CE. What to See in Rome, Paglia, 1938
Inside the arch, the seven-branched menorah and trumpets are clearly depicted. It became a symbol of the Jewish diaspora (scattering). In a later era, Pope Paul IV made it the place of a yearly oath of submission. (Paul IV is also the pope who created Jewish ghettos and forced Jews to live in seclusion.) Until the modern State of Israel was founded in 1948, many Jews refused to walk under the Arch of Titus. However, when the existence of the modern State of Israel was formally declared, many Roman Jews gathered by the arch and in joyful celebration, walked backwards under the arch to symbolize the beginning of the long-awaited redemption from the Roman Exile. Wikipedia
Another Pope Note: Pope Paul IV is the Pope who cut off Michelangelo’s pension and ordered that the nudes of the Last Judgment, in the Sistine Chapel be painted more modestly; a request that Michelangelo ignored.
Terms:
Apotheosis: The glorification of a subject to the divine level.
Frieze: (pronounced: freeze) The middle part of the entablature of a classical building, between the cornice and the architrave. It is quite often filled with relief sculptures.
Menorah: (pronounced: men-or-ah) A seven branched lamp-stand which is a symbol of Judaism since ancient times, and the emblem of the modern state of Israel.
Spoils of War: The rewards gained, stolen, and pilfered, through military victory.
The surrendering of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem was officially marked by the Romans with the building of two triumphal arches of which the Arch of Titus is the only remaining arch. This arch displays one of the most important triumphal processions mentioned in history.
In the frieze of the arch, under the inscription, is represented the first part of the procession where various animals are being lead to sacrifice. At the end of the procession soldiers are carrying a reclining figure of the River Jordon, symbolizing the country conquered by the Romans. Inside the arch, on the left, the spoils of war are carried in procession by Roman soldiers, who are about to pass under the Arch of Fabius, the seven branch candlestick, the Golden table of Shewbread, (Bread of the Presence) the famous silver trumpets and other spoils from the temple. These spoils were likely originally coloured gold with the background done in blue. In 2012, the Arch of Titus Digital Restoration Project discovered remains of yellow ochre paint on the menorah relief. The menorah depicted on the Arch served as the model for the menorah used on the emblem of the state of Israel.
Opposite, the Emperor is displayed in a triumphal chariot on his way to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capital; the goddess of Rome is leading the chariot.
The ceiling of the archway is deeply coffered and includes a relief depicting the apotheosis of Titus at the center. The sculptural program also includes two panel reliefs on the interior of the passageway within the arch. Both commemorate the triumph celebrated by Titus and his father Vespasian in the summer of 71 CE. What to See in Rome, Paglia, 1938
Inside the arch, the seven-branched menorah and trumpets are clearly depicted. It became a symbol of the Jewish diaspora (scattering). In a later era, Pope Paul IV made it the place of a yearly oath of submission. (Paul IV is also the pope who created Jewish ghettos and forced Jews to live in seclusion.) Until the modern State of Israel was founded in 1948, many Jews refused to walk under the Arch of Titus. However, when the existence of the modern State of Israel was formally declared, many Roman Jews gathered by the arch and in joyful celebration, walked backwards under the arch to symbolize the beginning of the long-awaited redemption from the Roman Exile. Wikipedia
Another Pope Note: Pope Paul IV is the Pope who cut off Michelangelo’s pension and ordered that the nudes of the Last Judgment, in the Sistine Chapel be painted more modestly; a request that Michelangelo ignored.
Terms:
Apotheosis: The glorification of a subject to the divine level.
Frieze: (pronounced: freeze) The middle part of the entablature of a classical building, between the cornice and the architrave. It is quite often filled with relief sculptures.
Menorah: (pronounced: men-or-ah) A seven branched lamp-stand which is a symbol of Judaism since ancient times, and the emblem of the modern state of Israel.
Spoils of War: The rewards gained, stolen, and pilfered, through military victory.
Directions from Forum to Trajan's Forum - Distance 400 M Time to walk: 5 Min
- When finished looking at the Forum, turn around and go back through the same alley-way you came through to get to the Forum. When at the front of the building, turn right. Walk past the building to the other side
- Face the building, look to your left. You will see the top of a seat of stairs. Descend the stairs.
- At the bottom of the stairs follow the cobbled sidewalk straight ahead, toward the Main Street.
- Once you have reached the Main Street, turn left and cross the road that you were just walking beside. You are crossing to get to the traffic lights.
- Stop at the traffic lights, push the button on the light pole to signal that you want to cross the road. Cross Via dei fori Imperiali. Trajan's Forum will be in front of you. Turn left to follow the fence around Trajan's.
